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NRBS - Home Table of Contents		Northern River Basins Study Final Report 3.0 Major Findings 3.2 Environmental Overview Introduction Current Developments    Municipal development    Agriculture    Forest Industries    Bleaching and Pulping Technologies    Petroleum    Mining    Transportation    Dams and Reservoirs Scenarios for Future Development Relevant Documents Introduction A summary of background environmental information has been compiled and presented in the NRBS synthesis report entitled Environmental Overview of the Northern River Basins. The Overview report provides a general sense of aspects of the basins that influence, or are influenced by the aquatic environment. It covers numerous topics of interest, including: climate physiographic regions geology ecoregions surface water characteristics current and historic developments regulations and regulatory bodies current studies monitoring fish and wildlife species
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		A comprehensive review of all aspects of the geography of the basins would extend beyond the mandate of the NRBS. This Section identifies major developments and briefly describes their impacts on the basins' rivers. More information is available in the synthesis report. Current Developments Municipal development In contrast to their size and richness, the northern river basins are sparsely populated. According to 1991 census figures, approximately 266,000 people reside in the Alberta portion of the basins and 3000 in the Northwest Territories. Of these, ten per cent are aboriginal peoples representing Cree, Chipewyan, Dene Tha', Beaver and Métis (Figure 3.2.1). Fifty-six per cent of Study area residents reside in urban areas (Figure 3.2.2). There are four cities within the basins Fort McMurray and Grande Prairie in Alberta, and Dawson Creek and Fort St. John in British Columbia. Municipal sewage is a source of nutrients and contaminants to the river systems, high levels of which can lead to larger amounts of plant growth. The decay of these plants in the winter uses up oxygen that is dissolved in the water oxygen that is needed by fish and other aquatic organisms. Large municipalities tend to discharge wastes from sewage treatment plants on a continuous basis, while smaller municipalities empty sewage lagoons once or twice a year.
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		The amount of nutrients and other contaminants in municipal effluent depends upon the level of sewage treatment. There are three levels of treatment: primary treatment removes large suspended or floating substances; secondary treatment further removes suspended solids and biodegradable material; and tertiary treatment achieves advanced reduction in nutrients, suspended solids and contaminants. The majority of municipalities with populations over 500 employ at least secondary sewage treatment. Sewage is not the only municipal waste that affects water quality. Stormwater runoff from urban areas is often high in automobile wastes, fertilizers and pesticides. In addition, poorly constructed landfill sites have the potential to leak contaminants into groundwater and local surface water bodies. Figure 3.2.1 Major Indian Reserves and Métis Settlements Figure 3.2.2 Populated Places Figure 3.2.3 Generalized Agricultural Areas
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Agriculture Approximately 45,000 km2 of the land surface in the Alberta portion of the basins is under cultivation. These lands can be sub-divided into two broad regions, one to the northwest and the other in central Alberta (Figure 3.2.3). In northwest Alberta, the Peace River country stretches from Grande Prairie - Valleyview to Fort Vermilion and encompasses the most northerly agricultural lands in Canada. This agricultural area also spills over into British Columbia. Canola, oats, peas, barley, tame hay and forage (e.g., alfalfa, timothy and clover) are important crops. There is limited livestock farming, including cattle, bison, elk and some sheep. Beekeeping is another noteworthy activity of the region; the bees supporting a thriving honey industry and serving as important pollinators. The agricultural lands along the Pembina River basin to Lac La Biche River line the perimeter of Alberta's main agricultural region to the south. Canola, peas, oats and forage crops dominate, with significant stands of barley and some wheat. Beef cattle are the dominant form of livestock, with some hogs, elk and bison.
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		In contrast to forestry and petroleum operations, some residents contend that agricultural expansion in the basins is reaching its limits. Large expanses of northern land have already been cleared for agriculture. While a large proportion of Canada's undeveloped arable land is still found within the northern river basins, the soils in these areas are generally marginal in quality or require extensive drainage. As a result, nearly all of the economically viable agricultural land in the basins is in use. Climatic changes, soaring world population, or new technologies may change the current economics of developing new farmland in the Study area. Two main water quality concerns related to agriculture in these regions are soil erosion, and the sediments and chemicals in agricultural runoff. These issues are linked to natural characteristics of northern soils and the impact of present day farming techniques. Solonetzic and Luvisolic soils, which cover large expanses of the northern agricultural area, are naturally susceptible to erosion. Extensive land clearing and drainage expose the soil to the erosive forces of wind and water. With water erosion comes the increased potential for soils, nutrients, pesticides and herbicides to enter local water bodies. The effects of erosion and runoff are compounded by the practice of summerfallowingótilling the soil and leaving it uncultivated for a season to control weeds and increase moisture and nutrients. At the same time, the practice can promote erosion. There is a move towards new tillage and seeding practices (such as conservation tillage and direct seeding) that decrease erosion and runoff while protecting soil quality.
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Forest Industries Figure 3.2.4 Pulp and Paper Mills Well over half of Alberta's productive forests are found within the northern river basins. Forestry is a major employer in northern Alberta and ranks high among the primary economic sectors of the province. The industry has evolved rapidly in the last two decades and continues to grow. The forest industry has diversified to include a variety of wood products, including lumber, oriented strandboard, fibreboard, roofing shakes, fence posts and wood pulp. Historically, the northern Alberta forestry sector has relied strongly on the use of softwoods (such as pine and spruce), but newer technologies make use of hardwoods (such as aspen) in the production of pulp, paper and panelboard. Better methods of controlling fire have aided forest protection. The management of forestry operations has also evolved. Alberta's forest lands are divided into 10 blocks, each of which has an assigned annual allowable cut based on an estimate of sustainable yield. Commercial harvesting within these blocks is organized under four types of agreements: forest management agreements (FMAs), quota certificates, commercial timber permits and local timber permits. FMAs contain provisions for forest inventory, renewal and protection. Though they cover over 140,000 km2 of the north, a much smaller area represents harvestable timber. In 1990, the Expert Review Panel on Forest Management in Alberta compiled a list of public concerns expressed through public meetings. These were grouped into three broad categories:
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		forest management: reforestation, FMA planning process, harvesting techniques, disposition of timber, sustained yield, Environmental Impact Assessments for forest operations, integrated resource planning, enforcement and regulation of industry, access control and public use fish and wildlife management: access, over hunting, habitat, impact on fisheries, rare and endangered species and general impacts environment: environmental impacts, use of herbicides, soil erosion, protection of ecosystems, climatic change and technology options Added to this list are environmental concerns related to pulp mills. Ten pulp mills are currently operating within the northern river basins, employing a variety of process technologies (Figure 3.2.4). By far the greatest concern related to pulp mills is the potential effect of waste effluent. Some of the toxic effluent compounds become concentrated in food chains and can have harmful effects on fish, fish-eating birds, mammals and (in some cases) humans. As with agricultural runoff and municipal wastes, pulp mills are a source of nutrients that can aggravate conditions in certain stretches of a river. Bleaching and Pulping Technologies:
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Bleached kraft mills use a combination of strong chemicals and heat to break down wood chips and separate fibre from lignin. The pulp is then chemically bleached to produce a high-grade pulp for making paper. Traditionally, molecular chlorine was used during this bleaching stage, but environmental concerns have caused many mills to switch to other chemicals (e.g., chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide) that result in lower concentrations of chlorinated compounds in waste waters. As a result, many of today's bleached kraft mills are categorized as "elemental chlorine-free" (ECF). Bleached chemithermomechanical pulp (BCTMP) mills use a combination of chemicals (usually sodium sulphite), heat and mechanical grinding to break down the wood chips. It is much more difficult to achieve the brightness and quality that is associated with bleached kraft pulp. Thermomechanical pulp (TMP) mills grind the wood with heat and mechanical action to produce a darker pulp. Pulp mill technologies are continually being upgraded to reduce environmental impacts and to meet increasingly stringent provincial and federal standards. Scrubbers and air monitoring efforts have reduced air emissions at many sites. The use of molecular chlorine in bleached kraft mills is declining. Kraft mills have already turned to more environmentally friendly alternatives, such as chlorine dioxide, oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Petroleum
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Figure 3.2.5 Petroleum Formations and Industries Alberta's petroleum industry includes conventional oil and gas fields, heavy oil, oil sands deposits and numerous oil and gas processing plants (Figure 3.2.5). Oil and gas deposits are common across the Alberta portion of the northern river basins, except in the far northeast, where the geology is dominated by the igneous formations of the Canadian Shield. Oil and gas usually occur together and the fields can be divided into areas that are "mostly oil" or "mostly gas." The Fox Creek area southwest of Swan Hills is one of Canada's largest producing gas fields. One of the other larger producing fields is located in the Elmworth area southwest of Grande Prairie. Sulphur is an economically significant by-product of the gas industry. Natural gas that contains hydrogen sulphide is referred to as "sour gas." Sulphur is extracted from the gas and comprises an important chemical export from Alberta. Oil deposits can be sub-divided into three categories: conventional oil, heavy oil and oil sands. Heavy oil, found predominantly in the area of Lloydminster, is more viscous than conventional crude. The tar-like "bitumen" found in oil sands is even thicker and must be separated from the grains of sand with steam or by other means. A few of the major conventional oil fields are found near the areas of Judy Creek, Swan Hills, Mitsue, and Utikuma Lake. Land disturbance is one of the major concerns related to oil drilling. Seismic lines formed by oil and mineral exploration are visible in many areas. Other concerns centre on land management, waste treatment, accidental spills and pipeline / storage tank failures. The major oil sands deposits within the Study area are located near Fort McMurray, in the upper Wabasca River and near the town of Peace River. The methods for extracting oil from these deposits varies with the depth and characteristics of the materials.
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Near Fort McMurray, the oil sands are close to the surface and are mined with draglines, bucket wheel excavators and electric shovels. As with other surface mining operations, land disturbance is an environmental concern. There is also considerable concern regarding tailings ponds located near the Athabasca River. Although the ponds are designed and built to high geo-technical standards, there is always some risk of a breach, no matter how small the probability. A breach would release contaminants into the Athabasca River and local groundwater supplies. The industry is currently developing new technologies to ensure the long-term environmental safety of these sites. Surface mining is practical for only a small percentage of the Athabasca oil sands deposits. In most areas, the oil sands are too deep and oil must be recovered by in situ ("in place") methods such as steam injection or combustion. There are a number of experimental in situ recovery plants in all of the major deposits, several of which are nearing or have reached commercial production. Mining
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Figure 3.2.6 Coal and Uranium Mining Apart from the oil sands, coal is the most actively mined fossil fuel in the Alberta portion of the basins. Coal deposits stretch from Beaverlodge to Grande Cache to Cadomin, but only portions of this area are under development (Figure 3.2.6). Exploration and production depend upon many factors, including seam thickness, retrieval costs and coal markets. Coal mining is concentrated along the foothills that parallel the Rocky Mountains between Gregg River and Grande Cache. Historically, some of the coal in this area was retrieved through underground mines. Remnants of these old mines are visible in a few areas where the tunnels have collapsed and the land has visibly subsided. Today, surface mining has largely replaced underground mines. As a result, one of the chief environmental concerns related to coal mining is land disturbance. Over the last several years, the mines have had growing success in habitat reclamation following closure of open pits. Other environmental concerns are related to the potential for coal mines to contaminate local waters with iron, coal dust, salts and other operational wastes. Other mining activities in the basins include extraction of sand, gravel, vanadium, peat and uranium. Deposits of salt, limestone, granite, gypsum and silica also have mining potential. Uranium deposits near Lake Athabasca were mined at Uranium City, Saskatchewan but were for the most part abandoned in the 1970s (Figure 3.2.6). Uranium mining operations have environmental implications because they can release radioactive materials into the aquatic environment that are hazardous in high doses to fish and other organisms. Transportation
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Figure 3.2.7 Transportation Historically and today, the high cost of transportation limits development of the north. Barge traffic, once an important mode of transport along the rivers, is now limited. Most northern communities are now accessible by air. Road access is growing, but a number of small northern communities (e.g., Fort Chipewyan) are accessible by vehicle only during the cold months with the annual opening of the winter roads. Railways are extensive in the southern and western portion of the basins and limited rail transport is available as far north as Hay River in the Northwest Territories (Figure 3.2.7). There are several environmental concerns related to transportation, including noise pollution, runoff, soil erosion and land clearing to name a few. In comparison to other forms of development, however, transportation has a relatively minor effect on water quality in the northern river basins. Dams and Reservoirs
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		A number of dams, reservoirs and water diversions occur within the basins area. The W.A.C. Bennett Dam, located astride the Peace River near Hudson's Hope, British Columbia, is undoubtedly the largest dam in the basins. Completed in 1968, the dam creates the large Williston Lake and regulates water flow into the Gordon M. Shrum hydroelectrical generating station. Dams create storage reservoirs that have the capacity to regulate the natural flows of rivers and can, in the case of the Bennett Dam, have far-reaching effects downstream. Reservoirs themselves can also have profound ecological effects. They destroy terrestrial habitat, discourage aquatic organisms that require fast flowing water and are well known as a source of methylmercury. In submerged areas, aquatic microbes convert natural (and relatively harmless) inorganic mercury into methylmercury compounds that accumulate in food webs and can contaminate fish and other aquatic organisms. Mercury methylation occurs naturally in many areas, but reservoirs can constitute a potentially important contaminant source due to the large amount of organic material that becomes submerged. Scenarios for Future Development In addition to understanding the current state of basin development, it is also helpful to perceive how market forces will shape the growth and types of future economic activities. The Study area's economic base is anchored by four key industrial sectors: agriculture, energy, forestry and manufacturing. All four are influenced by the international market forces of supply and demand, and all have potential implications for water resources within the basins. Agriculture
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Historically and today, agriculture remains an integral part of the economic backbone and land use within the basins. No dramatic growth is expected in the absolute size, scale or regional importance of this mature and relatively stable economic sector. However, the nature of farming activities in the basins is expected to evolve over the next decade. Farm management practices are also expected to change in order to increase productivity while minimizing environmental hazards. Energy The energy sector represents a large source of economic activity within the Study area. Energy-related industries within the region focus on non-renewable resources, including coal, oil and gas. There is also a great deal of hydroelectric potential in the basins. No dramatic growth is expected in coal and hydroelectric production within the foreseeable future. In contrast, the outlook for conventional oil, oil sands and natural gas development indicates growth. Oil sands represent the most significant area of potential growth in the NRBS area. Under favourable economic conditions, this industry could attract new investments totalling $20 to $25 billion and at least double in output over the next 25 years. Forestry The forest industry has grown dramatically over the past decade and now comprises an important source of regional economic activity. The major growth in this economic sector is linked to the use of remaining non-allocated hardwood forests and product diversification. In particular, strong short-term growth will hinge on expanding production of value-added products, such as pulp, paper, oriented strandboard and other manufactured wood products. Continued long-term growth will be highly dependent on international market conditions.
NRBS - Home Table of Contents Top of Page		Manufacturing Manufacturing accounts for a relatively modest proportion of economic activity within the Study area. Activities focus on processing of natural resources for export or supplying regional needs. The sector is not expected to grow significantly within the foreseeable future, except in relation to value-added processing of forestry products as discussed above. Relevant Documents NRBS Synthesis Reports Lyons, B. and B. MacLock. 1996. Environmental Overview of the Northern River Basins. Northern River Basins Study Synthesis Report No. 8. NRBS Project Reports Nichols Applied Management and Economic Consultants. 1995. Factors Affecting Future Development in Key Economic Sectors in the Peace, Athabasca and Slave River Basins. Northern River Basins Study Technical Report No. 73. Other Relevant Documents Expert Panel on Forest Management in Alberta. 1990. Forest Management in Alberta. Alberta Forestry, Lands and Wildlife.

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